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Play head-to-head with friends for the first time in the heart-pounding soccer action of FIFA Mobile! Build your Ultimate Team™, train any player to be a superstar, and then join in a League or play through more than 650 events in the all-new World Tour event. Participate in UEFA Champions League competitions to earn rewards or climb the leaderboards in weekly and monthly soccer events.
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GREATEST GRAPPLING ACTION Wrestling Games 2k18 - Real Stars Revolution offers multiple fighting experience to fans in this realistic game of wrestling & boxing action. Become the undisputed universal champion of free wrestling after beating all tag team champion wrestlers in the world. Enjoy the professional wrestling experience with unlimited fun.
Sports, physical contests pursued for the goals and challenges they entail. Sports are part of every past and present, but each culture has its own definition of sports.
The most useful definitions are those that clarify the relationship of sports to, games, and contests. “Play,” wrote the German theorist Carl Diem, “is purposeless activity, for its own sake, the opposite of work.” Humans work because they have to; they play because they want to. Play is autotelic—that is, it has its own goals.
It is voluntary and uncoerced. Children compelled by their parents or teachers to compete in a game of football (soccer) are not really engaged in a sport. Neither are professional athletes if their only motivation is their paycheck. In the real world, as a practical matter, motives are frequently mixed and often quite impossible to determine.
Unambiguous definition is nonetheless a prerequisite to practical determinations about what is and is not an example of play.There are at least two types of play. The first is spontaneous and unconstrained.
Examples abound. A child sees a flat stone, picks it up, and sends it skipping across the waters of a pond. An adult realizes with a laugh that he has uttered an unintended pun. Neither action is premeditated, and both are at least relatively free of constraint.
The second type of play is regulated. There are rules to determine which actions are and which are not.
These rules transform spontaneous play into games, which can thus be defined as rule-bound or regulated play. Leapfrog, “playing house,” and are all games, some with rather simple rules, others governed by a somewhat more complex set of regulations. In fact, the rule books for games such as basketball are hundreds of pages long.As games, chess and basketball are obviously different from leapfrog and playing house. The first two games are competitive, the second two are not. One can win a game of basketball, but it makes no sense to ask who has won a game of leapfrog. In other words, chess and basketball are contests.
A final distinction separates contests into two types: those that require at least a minimum of physical skill and those that do not. Is a good example of the first; the board games and will do to exemplify the second. It must of course be understood that even the simplest sports, such as, require a of effort, while others, such as baseball, involve a considerable amount of mental alertness. It must also be understood that the sports that have most excited the passions of humankind, as participants and as spectators, have required a great deal more physical prowess than a game of shuffleboard. Through the ages, sports heroes have demonstrated awesome strength, speed, stamina, endurance,.
Get exclusive access to content from our 1768 First Edition with your subscription.Sports, then, can be defined as autotelic (played for their own sake) physical contests. On the basis of this definition, one can devise a simple inverted-tree diagram. Despite the clarity of the definition, difficult questions arise. It is if one understands the activity as a contest between the climber and the mountain or as a competition between climbers to be the first to accomplish an ascent.
Are the drivers at the automobile race really athletes? They are if one believes that at least a modicum of physical skill is required for winning the competition.
The point of a clear definition is that it enables one to give more or less satisfactory answers to questions such as these. One can hardly understand sport if one does not begin with some of what sports are. Sumo wrestling in Japan; referee in traditional robe at left Burt Glinn/MagnumOf the armed (as opposed to unarmed) martial arts, archery was among the most important in the lives of Asian warriors from the Arabian to the Korean peninsulas. Notably, the Japanese practiced many forms of archery, the most colourful of which was probably yabusame, whose mounted contestants drew their bows and loosed their arrows while galloping down a straight track some 720 to 885 feet (220 to 270 metres) long.
They were required to shoot in quick succession at three small targets—each about 9 square inches (55 square cm) placed on 3-foot- (0.9-metre-) high poles 23 to 36 feet (7 to 11 metres) from the track and spaced at intervals of 235 to 295 feet (71.5 to 90 metres). In yabusame, accuracy was paramount.In Turkey, where the composite (wood plus horn) bow was an instrument of great power, archers competed for distance. At Istanbul’s Okmeydanı (“Arrow Field”), the record was set in 1798 when ’s arrow flew more than 2,900 feet (884 metres).As can be seen in Mughal art of the 16th and 17th centuries, aristocratic Indians—like their counterparts throughout Asia—used their bows and arrows for hunting as well as for archery contests. Mounted hunters demonstrated equestrian as well as toxophilite skills.
The Asian aristocrat’s passion for horses, which can be traced as far back as Hittite times, if not earlier, led not only to horse races (universal throughout Asia) but also to the development of and a host of similar equestrian contests. These equestrian games may in fact be the most distinctive Asian contribution to the repertory of modern sports.In all probability, polo evolved from a far rougher game played by the nomads of Afghanistan. In the form that survived into the 21st century, Afghan buzkashi is characterized by a dusty in which hundreds of mounted tribesmen fought over the headless carcass of a goat. The winner was the hardy rider who managed to grab the animal by the leg and drag it clear of the pack.
Since buzkashi was clearly an inappropriate passion for a civilized monarch, polo filled the bill. Persian manuscripts from the 6th century refer to polo played during the reign of Hormuz I (271–273). The game was painted by miniaturists and celebrated by Persian poets such as ( c. 1020) and (13/90). By 627 polo had spread throughout the Indian subcontinent and had reached China, where it became a passion among those wealthy enough to own horses. (All 16 emperors of the Tang 618–907 were polo players.) As with most sports, the vast majority of polo players were male, but the 12th-century Persian poet the skills of Princess Shīrīn.
Moreover, if numerous terra-cotta figures can be trusted as evidence, polo was also played by aristocratic Chinese women.There were also ball games for ordinary men and women. Played with carefully sewn stuffed skins, with animal bladders, or with found objects as simple as gourds, chunks of wood, or rounded stones, ball games are universal. Ball games of all sorts were quite popular among the Chinese. Descriptions of the game cuju, which resembled modern football (soccer), appeared as early as the Eastern (25–220). Games similar to modern were also played in the 1st century. Finally, the (1368–1644) Grove of Violets depicts elegantly attired ladies playing chuiwan, a game similar to modern. Sports of the ancient Mediterranean worldSports were unquestionably common in, where pharaohs used their hunting prowess and exhibitions of strength and skill in archery to demonstrate their fitness to rule.
In such exhibitions, pharaohs such as (ruled 1426–1400 bce) never competed against anyone else, however, and there is reason to suspect that their extraordinary achievements were scribal fictions. Nonetheless, Egyptians with less claim to divinity wrestled, jumped, and engaged in ball games and stick fights. In paintings found at Beni Hassan, in a tomb dating from the Middle Kingdom (1938– c. 1630 bce), there are studies of 406 pairs of wrestlers demonstrating their skill. AndSince Minoan script still baffles scholars, it is uncertain whether images of Cretan boys and girls testing their acrobatic skills against bulls depict sport, religious ritual, or both.
That the feats of the Cretans may have been both sport and ritual is suggested by evidence from Greece, where sports had a cultural significance unequaled anywhere else before the rise of modern sports. And religious motives mingle in history’s first extensive “sports report,” found in Book XXIII of Homer’s in the form of funeral games for the dead Patroclus.
These games were part of and were not, therefore, autotelic; the contests in the, on the other hand, were essentially secular. Odysseus was challenged by the Phaeacians to demonstrate his prowess as an athlete. In general, Greek culture included both cultic sports, such as the Olympic Games honouring, and secular contests.The most famous association of sports and religion was certainly the, which Greek tradition dates from 776 bce. In the course of time, the earth goddess Gaea, originally worshiped at, was supplanted in importance by the sky god Zeus, in whose honour priestly officials conducted quadrennial athletic contests.
Sacred games also were held at Delphi (in honour of Apollo), Corinth, and Nemea. These four events were known as the periodos, and great athletes, such as Theagenes of Thasos, prided themselves on victories at all four sites. Although most of the events contested at Greek sacred games remain familiar, the most important competition was the chariot race. The extraordinary prestige accorded athletic triumphs brought with it not only literary (as in the odes of ) and visual commemoration (in the form of statues of the victors) but also material benefits, contrary to the amateur by 19th-century philhellenists.
Since the Greeks were devoted to secular sports as well as to sacred games, no polis, or city-state, was considered a proper if it lacked a where, as the word gymnos indicates, naked male athletes trained and competed. Except in militaristic Sparta, Greek women rarely participated in sports of any kind. They were excluded from the Olympic Games even as spectators (except for the priestess of Demeter). The 2nd-century- ce traveler wrote of races for girls at Olympia, but these events in honour of Hera were of minor importance.Although were among the most popular sports spectacles of the Roman and eras, as they had been in Greek times, the Romans of the republic and the early empire were quite selectively enthusiastic about Greek athletic contests. Emphasizing physical exercises for military preparedness, an important motive in all ancient civilizations, the Romans preferred boxing, wrestling, and the javelin to footraces and throwing the discus. The historian Livy wrote of Greek athletes’ appearing in Rome as early as 186 bce; however, the contestants’ nudity shocked Roman moralists. The emperor instituted the Actian Games in 27 bce to celebrate his victory over Antony and Cleopatra, and several of his successors began similar games, but it was not until the later empire, especially during the reign of (117–138 ce), that many of the Roman elite developed an enthusiasm for Greek athletics.Greater numbers flocked to the chariot races held in Rome’s.
They were watched by as many as 250,000 spectators, five times the number that crowded into the to enjoy combat. Nevertheless, there is some evidence that the latter contests were actually more popular than the former. Indeed, the munera, which pitted man against man, and the, which set men against animals, became popular even in the Greek-speaking Eastern Empire, which historians once thought immune from the lust for blood. The greater frequency of chariot races can be explained in part by the fact that they were relatively inexpensive compared with the enormous costs of gladiatorial combat. The editor who staged the games usually rented the gladiators from a lanista (the manager of a troupe of gladiators) and was required to reimburse him for losers executed in response to a “thumbs down” sign. Brutal as these combats were, many of the gladiators were free men who volunteered to fight, an obvious sign of motivation. Indeed, imperial edicts were needed to discourage the aristocracy’s participation.
During the reign of Nero (54–68), female gladiators were introduced into the.The Roman and the Byzantine continued to provide long after Christian protests (and heavy economic costs) ended the gladiatorial games, probably early in the 5th century. In many ways the chariot races were quite modern. The charioteers were divided into bureaucratically organized factions (e.g., the “Blues” and the “Greens”), which excited the loyalties of fans from to Mesopotamia. Charioteers boasted of the number of their victories as modern athletes brag about their “stats,” indicating, perhaps, some awareness of what in modern times are called.
The gladiatorial games, however, like the Greek games before them, had a powerful religious dimension. The first Roman combats, in 264 bce, were probably derived from Etruscan funeral games in which mortal combat provided companions for the deceased. It was the idolatry of the games, even more than their brutality, that horrified Christian protesters. The less-obtrusive pagan religious associations of the chariot races helped them survive for centuries after Constantine’s conversion to Christianity in 337 ce.
Sports in theThe sports of Europe were less well-organized than those of classical antiquity. Fairs and seasonal festivals were occasions for men to lift stones or sacks of grain and for women to run smock races (for a smock, not in one). The favourite sport of the peasantry was, a wild no-holds-barred unbounded game that pitted married men against bachelors or one village against another. The violence of the game, which survived in Britain and in France until the late 19th century, prompted Renaissance humanists, such as, to condemn it as more likely to maim than to benefit the participants.The of the and the Renaissance amused itself with matches, some of which were arranged months in advance and staged with considerable fanfare. When town met town in a challenge of skill, the companies of crossbowmen and longbowmen marched behind the symbols of, St. Sebastian, and other patrons of the sport.
It was not unusual for contests in running, jumping, cudgeling, and wrestling to be offered for the lower classes who attended the match as spectators. Grand feasts were part of the program, and drunkenness commonly added to the revelry. In Germanic areas a Pritschenkoenig was supposed to simultaneously keep order and entertain the crowd with clever verses.
Soccer ball Modern football (soccer ball). © pingebat/Shutterstock.comThe entry of working-class athletes into soccer and other sports, as participants if not as administrators, inspired Britain’s middle and upper classes to formulate the amateur rule, which originally excluded not only anyone paid for athletic performances but also anyone who earned his living by manual labour of any sort. GlobalizationFrom the British Isles, modern sports (and the amateur rule) were diffused throughout the world. Sports that originally began elsewhere, such as tennis (which comes from Renaissance France), were modernized and exported as if they too were raw materials imported for British industry to transform and then export as finished goods.In the 18th and 19th centuries, the British expelled the French from Canada and from India and extended British rule over much of Africa. To the ends of the earth, cricket followed the, which explains the game’s current popularity in Australia, South Asia, and the. Football flourishes in other postcolonial cultures, such as and, where the British once ruled. It was, however, association football’s destiny to become the world’s most widely played modern sport.Cricket and rugby seemed to require British rule in order to take root.
Football needed only the presence of British economic and cultural influence. In Buenos Aires, for instance, British residents founded clubs for cricket and a dozen other sports, but it was the Buenos Aires Football Club, founded June 20, 1867, that kindled Argentine passions. In almost every instance, the first to adopt football were the sons of local elites, many of whom had been sent to British schools by their Anglophile parents.
Seeking status as well as diversion, middle-class employees of British firms followed the upper-class lead. From the gamut of games played by the upper and middle classes, the industrial workers of Europe and, like the population of Africa, appropriated football as their own.By the late 19th century, the had begun to rival Great Britain as an industrial power and as an inventor of modern sports.
Enthusiasts of denied its origins in British children’s games such as cat and and concocted the myth of, who allegedly invented the game in 1839 in Cooperstown, New York. A more plausible date for the transformation of cat and rounders into baseball is 1845, when a New York bank clerk named Alexander Cartwright formulated the rules of the Knickerbocker Base Ball Club.
Even before the Civil War, the game had been taken over by urban workers such as the volunteer firemen who organized the New York Mutuals in 1857. By the time the National League was created in 1876, the game had spread from coast to coast.
(It was not until the 1950s, however, that planted its first franchises on the West Coast.).
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